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The Barbary Wars at the Clements
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Salty Dog
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191991 Gold -

PostPosted: Fri Jan 05, 2018 6:41 am    Post subject: The Barbary Wars at the Clements Reply with quote

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the Barbary States – Morocco, Tunis, Tripoli, and Algiers – terrorized the waters off the coast of Northern Africa. Their state-sanctioned pirates seized European merchant ships, plundered their cargoes, enslaved their crews, and extracted heavy ransoms from the victims' families and governments. Instead of confronting the piratical states militarily, many of the wealthy powers of Europe chose to pay “tributes” to the Barbary governments in exchange for the safe passage of their Mediterranean trading ships.

With the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783, the United States formally gained its independence from Great Britain. Americans hoped that they would now enter a new era of global free trade, but soon realized the many drawbacks of no longer being protected by Britain’s powerful navy and international agreements. American merchants found themselves defenseless against the Barbary pirates.

At a time when water was the most economically viable way to transport goods, the Mediterranean was vital to American prosperity. Presidents Washington and Adams chose to pay exorbitant tributes to the Barbary powers, though the bribes failed to ensure full protection from piracy and were subject to the whims of the Bashaw of Tripoli, the Bey of Tunis, the Sultan of Morocco, and the Dey of Algiers. With tribute prices escalating, the newly elected President Thomas Jefferson bypassed Congress and sent the nation’s fledgling navy to confront the Barbary powers. In 1815, President James Madison sent a naval force to the Mediterranean to finish what Jefferson started, and finally put an end to the Barbary piracy.

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Salty Dog
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PostPosted: Fri Jan 05, 2018 6:42 am    Post subject: Reply with quote

This online exhibit highlights the Clements Library’s best holdings related to the Barbary Wars. Featured items include manuscripts, books, maps, and engravings documenting the United States' first interactions with the Arab world and the early development of the U.S. Navy. The heart of this material comes from three manuscript collections: The Tobias Lear papers, the John Rodgers papers, and the Isaac Chauncey papers. Together, these collections document the highest level of naval and diplomatic decision-making during and after the wars. Additionally, the exhibit relies on several other manuscript collections that contain discussions of and references to early American activities in the Mediterranean. Also showcased is the Clements' collection of 19th-century Barbary captivity narratives, books that informed and inflamed the American public on the home front, as well as images of the naval conflict and maps of the region. We hope that the exhibit will draw attention to an often-neglected episode in American history, and inspire researchers and enthusiasts to pursue new discoveries at the Clements Library.

Project archivist Philip Heslip identified and compiled the manuscripts and collections used in this exhibit in conjunction with his work on the manuscripts division's National Endowment for the Humanities processing grant "Landmark Events in the Early American Republic."
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Salty Dog
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191991 Gold -

PostPosted: Fri Jan 05, 2018 6:44 am    Post subject: Reply with quote



Barbary Wars Timeline

September 3, 1783: Signing of the Treaty of Paris ends the American war for independence; American ships are no longer protected under British treaties

October 1784: The Boston merchant ship Betsy is captured off the coast of Africa and its crew are sold into slavery in Morocco

1786: United States signs a peace treaty with Morocco

1794: Congress raises one million dollars to purchase peace with the Barbary States and begins to construct a small naval force

1795: United States signs a treaty with Algiers

1796: United States signs a treaty with Tripoli

1797: United States signs a treaty with Tunis

July 1797: William Eaton is appointed American consul to Tunis

December 1799: United States agrees to pay Tripoli $18,000 per year to secure safety for American trade ships in the Mediterranean; similar agreements with the other Barbary powers are also settled

February 17, 1801: Thomas Jefferson becomes President of the United States
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Salty Dog
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PostPosted: Fri Jan 05, 2018 6:45 am    Post subject: Reply with quote

March 1801: Tripoli declares war on the United States and seizes numerous American merchant ships

May 15, 1801: Jefferson sends a naval squadron, commanded by Captain Richard Dale to Tripoli to blockade the port; the blockade lasts from July 24-September 3

August 1, 1801: Andrew Sterett and the USS Enterprise capture Admiral Rais Mahomet Rous’ ship Tripoli after a bloody battle; the event is considered the first U.S. naval victory of the Barbary Wars

February 6, 1802: Congress passes the Act for Protection of Commerce and Seamen of the United States Against the Tripolitian Corsairs, essentially a declaration of war

June 17, 1802: The Emperor of Morocco declares war against the United States but negotiates a peace settlement in August

January 17, 1803: Commodore Edward Preble leads an American squadron to the Mediterranean; subordinate officers include Stephen Decatur, John Rodgers, Isaac Chauncey, Oliver Hazard Perry, and David Porter

March 4, 1803: Commodore Charles Morris and Captain John Rogers are arrested by the Bey of Tunis and are forced to pay Eaton’s debts

May 12, 1803: Captain Rodgers and the John Adams capture the Tripolitan frigate Meshouda

June 10, 1803: Tobias Lear is appointed consul general to the Barbary States

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Salty Dog
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PostPosted: Fri Jan 05, 2018 6:45 am    Post subject: Reply with quote

October 31, 1803: William Bainbridge and his warship the Philadelphia surrender to Tripoli after running aground in Tripoli harbor

February 16, 1804: Stephen Decatur on the Intrepid set the captured Philadelphia on fire as it is anchored in Tripoli harbor

August 3, 1804: Commodore Preble launches an attack on Tripoli that lasts until September 11

April 27, 1805: After a two month march across the Libyan desert, William Eaton, former Tripoli Pasha Hamet Karamanli, and a group of mercenaries attack Derna by land, meanwhile three US warships under Captain Isaac Hull strike Derna by sea; together they take the fort

May 15, 1805: Rodgers takes over command of the American fleet from Samuel Barron

June 4, 1805: The Pasha agrees to a treaty with Lear and takes over Derna; America no longer needs to pay yearly tributes to Tripoli

June 10, 1805: Treaty of Tripoli is officially signed

November 1805: Tobias Lear is stationed at Algiers as U.S. consul

1807: The Mediterranean Squadron is withdrawn and Barbary powers resume capturing American trading ships

March 5, 1809: James Madison becomes president

July 25, 1812: The Dey of Algiers refuses the annual American tribute and expels Tobias Lear and his colleagues from Algiers
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Salty Dog
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191991 Gold -

PostPosted: Fri Jan 05, 2018 6:45 am    Post subject: Reply with quote

July 25, 1812: Algerian corsairs capture the brig Edwin

Fall 1812: At the outset of the War of 1812, the British blockade the Atlantic seaboard of the United States, thus halting much Mediterranean commerce

April 9, 1813: Tobias Lear arrives in New York City

December 24, 1814: United States and Great Britain sign the Treaty of Ghent, ending the War of 1812

March 3, 1815: Congress, with Madison’s support, declares war on Algiers

May 15, 1815: Commanding the American fleet, Stephen Decatur leaves New York for Algiers

July 3, 1815: Stephen Decatur destroys several Algerian ships before suing for peace with Algiers. William Shaler negotiates treaty that ends the practice of paying tribute, frees American and European slaves from Algiers, and secures full American shipping rights in the Mediterranean

November 12, 1815: Stephen Decatur and the Guerriere return to New York City to a hero’s welcome

December 5, 1815: The Algiers Treaty is taken before Congress

December 15, 1815: Madison declares the Barbary War over; American squadrons still patrol the Mediterranean

January 5, 1816: Oliver Hazard Perry is sent as captain of the Java to patrol the Mediterranean

June 1816: Isaac Chauncey replaces Stephen Decatur as commander of the Mediterranean Squadron, which enforces the Algiers Treaty

1830: Andrew Jackson appoints David Porter consul general to Algiers
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Salty Dog
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PostPosted: Sat Jan 06, 2018 5:28 pm    Post subject: Reply with quote

Background to the Conflict


The Barbary States were the present day nations of Algeria, Libya, Morocco, and Tunisia. Except for Morocco, the Ottoman Empire held the states as auxiliary kingdoms, though by the late 18th century they were almost entirely independent from Turkish rule. The North African population was predominantly Muslim, and British and Americans commonly referred to them as "Turks."




Never prosperous traders themselves, the Barbary powers relied on state-sanctioned privateers to patrol the Mediterranean Sea and seize trade ships not protected by international treaties. The Barbary pirates confiscated the cargo and either enslaved the crew and passengers or demanded a steep ransom from their home country. By the time of the American Revolution, the Barbary nations' domination of the Mediterranean Sea had weakened. Though their fearsome privateers still threatened Mediterranean trade, the wealthy nations of Europe (France, Great Britain, and Sweden) purchased protection from piratical raids with expensive tributes. Meanwhile, the ships of nations that could not afford the tributes were in constant danger of Barbary pillaging. In this way, the Barbary threat ensured that England, France, and Sweden dominated Mediterranean trade.
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Salty Dog
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191991 Gold -

PostPosted: Sat Jan 06, 2018 5:29 pm    Post subject: Reply with quote



The William Petty, 2nd Earl of Shelburne papers are a wonderful source of information on the state of North Africa in the mid-18th century. Shelburne, who in the 1760s served as first lord of the Board of Trade and secretary of state, received intelligence reports on the commercial and military capabilities of the North African nations. The bulk of this material is in the Shelburne papers, Volumes 19, 40, and 111.

Volume 19 is "An Account of the Military and Naval Power of the Tripoly, Tunis, Algiers & Morocco, & of the Produce & Trade of those Piratical States &c. &c." These 1765 reports contain brief histories on each state, along with details on their populations, trade capabilities (imports and exports), the condition and size of their militaries and navies, geographical advantages and disadvantages, governmental systems, and diplomatic alliances. The reports also lay out potential British blockade strategies.
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Salty Dog
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PostPosted: Sat Jan 06, 2018 5:32 pm    Post subject: Reply with quote

Volume 40 contains "Correspondence with English consuls and agents to the Barbary States, letters to the Algerian Dey, Barbary treaties; and letters concerning Mediterranean Passes," (1766-1768).

Volume 111 of the Shelburne papers is a report on the "General State of the Trade of Algiers," which lists British exports and imports to Algiers, Morocco, Tunis, and Tripoli, and "Trade carried by the Tripoline Moors to the Inland Parts of Africa, 1766."

The following documents are in Volume 40. The left image links to two sections of an agreement with Morocco allowing British merchants to sail in the Mediterranean (1766). The right image links to a letter from the Emperor of Morocco to King George III:





The Clements Library's Charles Townshend papers hold additional material documenting British dealings with the Barbary States. These papers include details of Augustus Kepple's (1725-1786) tribute negotiations with Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis in 1750-1751 (see Box 297-1), along with a printed pamphlet entitled "The Case of the Merchants who have Suffered by the Seizure of the Treasure on board the Prince Frederich Packet-Boat by the Algerines" (see Box 8-30).
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Salty Dog
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191991 Gold -

PostPosted: Sat Jan 06, 2018 5:34 pm    Post subject: Reply with quote

Early American Interactions with the Barbary Pirates


After gaining independence from Great Britain, the United States had little money to create and maintain a strong military. Under President Washington, Secretary of State John Jay chose to protect American merchant ships by negotiating with the Barbary powers. Maintaining peace with North Africa, however, proved to be a perpetual struggle. The United States entered into several agreements with the Islamic powers of North Africa, including a treaty of peace with Morocco in 1786, a treaty that still stands today, treaties with Algiers in 1795 and 1796 (the latter, signed by Secretary of State Timothy Pickering, which curiously permitted Algerian privateers to hold Americans as slaves legally if they did not produce official passports), with Tripoli in 1796, and with Tunis in 1797. These treaties required that the United States pay expensive tributes of money, supplies, naval goods, and even warships.

Secretary of State [Timothy Pickering] Memo excerpt, before July 14, 1796:


This memo (pictured below) from Secretary of State Timothy Pickering concerns shipbuilder Josiah Fox's inquiry for material needed in building a frigate for Algiers.




This Congressional document is a page from a longer report on the United States' tribute payments to Algiers:



Reports of the Secretary of State, and of the Secretary of the Treasury, Relative to the Present Situation of Affairs With the Dey and Regency of Algiers: Accompanying a Confidential Message, From the President of the United States, Received the 19th of January, 1797. Philadelphia, 1797.

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Despite the treaties and ever-increasing tribute payments, the Barbary pirates continued to capture American trading vessels. Ships captured included the Betsey, Dispatch, Dauphin, Hope, Jane, Jay, Maria, Mary, Minerva, Olive Branch, Oswego, Polly, President, Sophia, and Thomas, among others. Privateers took the ships and cargo as prizes and enslaved the crew, stripped and chained them, and humiliated them in public parades. Finally, in 1794, Congress commissioned six frigates for Mediterranean use, and in 1798 approved establishing a marine corps. These efforts did not end the pillaging. In 1795, for example, America paid $1 million to Algiers for ransoms and tributes to ensure temporary peace, a sum that amounted to 20 percent of the country's entire annual budget. By some estimates, between 1784 and the conclusion of the 2nd Barbary War (1815), the Barbary privateers captured almost 700 American citizens.



The Barbary threat also discouraged American travelers from entering the Mediterranean waters. In a letter from the William Young papers traveler Stephen Young wrote to this brother William from Europe:




I have recd. a letter for you from your Uncle in Blacklaw & another from Doctor Lyman [ ] which I have sent with the bearer Charles White who is a member of Mr. Ellis congregation here. it is here reported that there is much danger of going to America in an American bottom for fear of the Algerines so that some are dtered on that acct. I wish you would give your mind respecting this. S.Y. April 28, [1794]



The pirates discouraged private merchants from attempting trade in the Barbary waters. Both the William L. Fisher papers (letter dated December 29, 1798) and the Grew Family papers (letter dated July 3, 1795) contain brief discussions of the risks faced by American trade companies that sent ships to the Mediterranean.



Other Pre-war Highlights:


Sidi Hamet to William Eaton, September 15, 1800:

An envelope from Prince Sidi Hamet, Bashaw of Tripoli, to American Consul William Eaton:

section break
Isaac Hull to his Midshipmen, December 31, 1800:

Instructions from Captain Talbot, relayed through Captain Isaac Hull, describing methods for recording a ship's course in the Mediterranean:

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Despite the treaties and ever-increasing tribute payments, the Barbary pirates continued to capture American trading vessels. Ships captured included the Betsey, Dispatch, Dauphin, Hope, Jane, Jay, Maria, Mary, Minerva, Olive Branch, Oswego, Polly, President, Sophia, and Thomas, among others. Privateers took the ships and cargo as prizes and enslaved the crew, stripped and chained them, and humiliated them in public parades. Finally, in 1794, Congress commissioned six frigates for Mediterranean use, and in 1798 approved establishing a marine corps. These efforts did not end the pillaging. In 1795, for example, America paid $1 million to Algiers for ransoms and tributes to ensure temporary peace, a sum that amounted to 20 percent of the country's entire annual budget. By some estimates, between 1784 and the conclusion of the 2nd Barbary War (1815), the Barbary privateers captured almost 700 American citizens.
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Salty Dog
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191991 Gold -

PostPosted: Sat Jan 06, 2018 5:36 pm    Post subject: Reply with quote

The Barbary threat also discouraged American travelers from entering the Mediterranean waters. In a letter from the William Young papers traveler Stephen Young wrote to this brother William from Europe:




have recd. a letter for you from your Uncle in Blacklaw & another from Doctor Lyman [ ] which I have sent with the bearer Charles White who is a member of Mr. Ellis congregation here. it is here reported that there is much danger of going to America in an American bottom for fear of the Algerines so that some are dtered on that acct. I wish you would give your mind respecting this. S.Y. April 28, [1794]

The pirates discouraged private merchants from attempting trade in the Barbary waters. Both the William L. Fisher papers (letter dated December 29, 1798) and the Grew Family papers (letter dated July 3, 1795) contain brief discussions of the risks faced by American trade companies that sent ships to the Mediterranean.
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Salty Dog
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191991 Gold -

PostPosted: Sat Jan 06, 2018 5:38 pm    Post subject: Reply with quote

Other Pre-war Highlights:


Sidi Hamet to William Eaton, September 15, 1800:



An envelope from Prince Sidi Hamet, Bashaw of Tripoli, to American Consul William Eaton:



Isaac Hull to his Midshipmen, December 31, 1800:

Instructions from Captain Talbot, relayed through Captain Isaac Hull, describing methods for recording a ship's course in the Mediterranean:


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Salty Dog
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191991 Gold -

PostPosted: Sat Jan 06, 2018 5:52 pm    Post subject: Reply with quote

The Clement is the Historical Research arm of the University of Michigan. I have tons more information on the Barbary Wars to post if people are interested but I have a strong feeling this is getting too far removed from the normal piracy interests of this board. I won't post any more of the Barbary Wars stuff here unless others are interested.
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